Parsha #31 : “Emor / “Speak [Say / Tell]””
(V’Yikra / Leviticus *21:1 through 24:23*)
Edition: 15e09
“The Cost of Special”
Back what seems like many decades ago… [oh wait, it WAS many decades ago]… when I was teaching in a regular classroom, I used a process that I learned from my own teachers over the years. During the first few days of school each fall, I would assess the students – not for marks or grades, but for personality and behaviour. Then, I would gradually move those that I deemed to be potential behaviour problems to the front of the class where they would be nearer my desk. I had learned this first-hand because – as often as not – that’s where my desk was placed as a student.
The closer proximity meant that I could more easily keep an eye on trouble and usually ‘nip-it-in-the-bud’ as the saying goes. It also meant, of course, that those who were the more studious, the hard workers, the well-behaved sat at the back of the room. They could generally be trusted to do their work on their own, and if they had questions, they could easily get my attention. It was a system which worked pretty well, actually – but this past week, I have been wondering if I may have made a strategic error. (Yes, I know, I can hear all of you who are regular readers, or who know me well enough, crying out in alarm “Surely that’s not possible, an error? You made an error?” And I agree – it’s hard to imagine me being wrong, but I am at least entertaining the thought. Of course, my humility – that inner character which, as you all know, I have honed to perfection – forbids me from denying the possibility altogether – at least for now… )
“What possible error could you have made?”, you are asking. Well, as I read this week’s Parsha, (“Emor”), and as I come to appreciate the pattern set by Adonai, I think I might have had it backwards….
The Parsha “Emor” seems to be bogged down in some pretty heavy instruction to the Cohenim, but let’s try to take a different slant at it – in a way that will hopefully make sense to us in our time and situation. We know from earlier passages that the twelve sons of Ya’acov were the progenitors of the tribes which would make up the nation of Israel. We also know that it was the descendants of those twelve tribes which Moshé rescued from Egypt. We have followed the trek of these twelve tribes from Egypt to the lower Sinai Peninsula and more specifically to the base of Mount Sinai. We have listened and watched as Elohim, the God of Avraham, Yitzchak and Ya’acov has given instructions to Moshé regarding how the fledgling nation was to live. As someone has quipped, “God had taken His people out of Egypt, now He must try to get Egypt out of His people.”
Part of the process in this challenge was to select one tribe who would become the spiritual leaders of B'nei Yisra'el. For this calling, Adonai selected Aharon, the brother of Moshé, who had been with Moshé through all the recent events in Egypt which led to their rescue. We have witnessed how Elohim gave instructions as to the Law which would lay down ground rules for the relationships Israel was to foster – first with their God, second with each other. Because B'nei Yisra'el broke the relationship with their God by impatiently calling for a new god to lead them forward, (a golden calf) thus effectively proving their unworthiness to become dwelling places for God’s presence themselves, Elohim gave instructions for the construction of a Tabernacle which would become His dwelling place amongst the people. The Tabernacle would become the focal point of all ‘events theological’ – in particular, it was the place where B'nei Yisra'el could bring sacrifices to offer so as to make amends for their sinful actions.
The closer proximity meant that I could more easily keep an eye on trouble and usually ‘nip-it-in-the-bud’ as the saying goes. It also meant, of course, that those who were the more studious, the hard workers, the well-behaved sat at the back of the room. They could generally be trusted to do their work on their own, and if they had questions, they could easily get my attention. It was a system which worked pretty well, actually – but this past week, I have been wondering if I may have made a strategic error. (Yes, I know, I can hear all of you who are regular readers, or who know me well enough, crying out in alarm “Surely that’s not possible, an error? You made an error?” And I agree – it’s hard to imagine me being wrong, but I am at least entertaining the thought. Of course, my humility – that inner character which, as you all know, I have honed to perfection – forbids me from denying the possibility altogether – at least for now… )
“What possible error could you have made?”, you are asking. Well, as I read this week’s Parsha, (“Emor”), and as I come to appreciate the pattern set by Adonai, I think I might have had it backwards….
The Parsha “Emor” seems to be bogged down in some pretty heavy instruction to the Cohenim, but let’s try to take a different slant at it – in a way that will hopefully make sense to us in our time and situation. We know from earlier passages that the twelve sons of Ya’acov were the progenitors of the tribes which would make up the nation of Israel. We also know that it was the descendants of those twelve tribes which Moshé rescued from Egypt. We have followed the trek of these twelve tribes from Egypt to the lower Sinai Peninsula and more specifically to the base of Mount Sinai. We have listened and watched as Elohim, the God of Avraham, Yitzchak and Ya’acov has given instructions to Moshé regarding how the fledgling nation was to live. As someone has quipped, “God had taken His people out of Egypt, now He must try to get Egypt out of His people.”
Part of the process in this challenge was to select one tribe who would become the spiritual leaders of B'nei Yisra'el. For this calling, Adonai selected Aharon, the brother of Moshé, who had been with Moshé through all the recent events in Egypt which led to their rescue. We have witnessed how Elohim gave instructions as to the Law which would lay down ground rules for the relationships Israel was to foster – first with their God, second with each other. Because B'nei Yisra'el broke the relationship with their God by impatiently calling for a new god to lead them forward, (a golden calf) thus effectively proving their unworthiness to become dwelling places for God’s presence themselves, Elohim gave instructions for the construction of a Tabernacle which would become His dwelling place amongst the people. The Tabernacle would become the focal point of all ‘events theological’ – in particular, it was the place where B'nei Yisra'el could bring sacrifices to offer so as to make amends for their sinful actions.
But Adonai knew that unless there were certain individuals instructed in how these sacrifices were to be made, things would eventually run amok. Because Aharon had been given the task to accompany Moshé earlier, he was assigned the role of Cohen Gadol, one might say the Senior Spiritual Advisor, for Israel. His four sons were to become Cohenim and work alongside Aharon in the Tabernacle. We read, just back a few chapters in V’Yikra, that the Tabernacle had been finished and consecrated, and then Aharon and his sons were consecrated to their calling. Furthermore we learn that the role of Cohen will be inherited within the line of Aharon throughout the future. [NOTE: This call will be refined still further in a future Parsha.] Basically what we have, then, is one tribe being separated from the other eleven to serve in various ministries related to the Tabernacle, and then one family of Levites, (the offspring of Aharon) being separated from the others. These men were to serve as Cohenim in the Tabernacle. These men would be “the students sitting in the front seats of the classroom”. In fact, in just three Parshiot in the future, (B’Midbar) we will see just how appropriate this image really is.
To be called to the Priesthood was indeed a special privilege. The Cohenim were, first and foremost, the representatives of Elohim on earth. They formed the body of intermediaries who would act on behalf of God and His people. In other words, their role was played out in two directions – they represented Adonai to the people, and they stood in on behalf of the people before Adonai. The Cohen Gadol, the role first filled by Aharon, stood closest to Elohim in that (following the fiasco of Nadab and Abihu’s presentation of unholy fire, and their careless (drunken) approach to Elohim) only the Cohen Gadol could enter the Holy of Holies (a.k.a. the Most Holy Place) and that privilege only could happen once a year on Yom Kippur.
At the same time as being a privilege to serve God and B'nei Yisra'el in this manner, it was also an awesome responsibility. To realize that one’s calling in life originated directly from God should – if we are in our right minds – make us tremble with fear, and fill us with indubitable respect for our vocation. To be a Cohen in the service of Adonai is definitely the very highest of callings. I know of few other calls to a role which even come close… Motherhood is perhaps next in line followed by fatherhood. To serve as a guardian of the Law as a Police officer, to serve in an emergency as a fire-fighter or paramedic or in the medical profession are also of high import, followed by being a teacher. All these roles fulfill a Godly purpose – co-creation, protection, serving the Law, restoring health and passing on the instructions of Adonai to the next generation. [It has always boggled my mind that instead of honouring these vocations, we generally idolize warriors, and sports arena ‘gladiators’, and those in entertainment, something which is clearly engineered to help us forget what and who we are for brief moments in time.]
Being a Levite, and particularly being a Cohen, was such a high calling, in fact, that no earthly duty was to be permitted to interfere with it. And this is what the instructions of Parsha Emor are pointing out for us. To allow oneself to be called away from our God-given vocation was to allow ourselves to become contaminated by the things of the world. To be contaminated by worldly things meant that serving in the nearer presence of God was out of the question – For Elohim could not, and can not, be in the presence of anything unholy, mundane, worldly or in fact of anything evil. (The psalmist asks: “Who can ascend the hill of the Lord?” Then he answers by stating “only he who has clean hands” (Ps 24:3,4). Generally we think of the Temple Mount as ‘the hill of the Lord’, but could it, in our application today, be simply referring to the ramp up to the Altar of Sacrifice??)
Parsha Emor outlines some of the extremes of this contamination for the priestly crowd. The Cohenim, for instance, were to have nothing to do with human death and dead bodies. While they dealt with death in sacrifice every moment of the day, human death was to be avoided. For the Cohen, only the death of an immediate family member was permitted to draw him away. For the Cohen Gadol, even a family death was out of bounds – unless there were no others (family, neighbours, even passers-by) that could deal with arrangements. The Cohen Gadol could not lay aside his duties even to follow in the funeral procession – not even for his wife.
At the same time as being a privilege to serve God and B'nei Yisra'el in this manner, it was also an awesome responsibility. To realize that one’s calling in life originated directly from God should – if we are in our right minds – make us tremble with fear, and fill us with indubitable respect for our vocation. To be a Cohen in the service of Adonai is definitely the very highest of callings. I know of few other calls to a role which even come close… Motherhood is perhaps next in line followed by fatherhood. To serve as a guardian of the Law as a Police officer, to serve in an emergency as a fire-fighter or paramedic or in the medical profession are also of high import, followed by being a teacher. All these roles fulfill a Godly purpose – co-creation, protection, serving the Law, restoring health and passing on the instructions of Adonai to the next generation. [It has always boggled my mind that instead of honouring these vocations, we generally idolize warriors, and sports arena ‘gladiators’, and those in entertainment, something which is clearly engineered to help us forget what and who we are for brief moments in time.]
Being a Levite, and particularly being a Cohen, was such a high calling, in fact, that no earthly duty was to be permitted to interfere with it. And this is what the instructions of Parsha Emor are pointing out for us. To allow oneself to be called away from our God-given vocation was to allow ourselves to become contaminated by the things of the world. To be contaminated by worldly things meant that serving in the nearer presence of God was out of the question – For Elohim could not, and can not, be in the presence of anything unholy, mundane, worldly or in fact of anything evil. (The psalmist asks: “Who can ascend the hill of the Lord?” Then he answers by stating “only he who has clean hands” (Ps 24:3,4). Generally we think of the Temple Mount as ‘the hill of the Lord’, but could it, in our application today, be simply referring to the ramp up to the Altar of Sacrifice??)
Parsha Emor outlines some of the extremes of this contamination for the priestly crowd. The Cohenim, for instance, were to have nothing to do with human death and dead bodies. While they dealt with death in sacrifice every moment of the day, human death was to be avoided. For the Cohen, only the death of an immediate family member was permitted to draw him away. For the Cohen Gadol, even a family death was out of bounds – unless there were no others (family, neighbours, even passers-by) that could deal with arrangements. The Cohen Gadol could not lay aside his duties even to follow in the funeral procession – not even for his wife.
Understanding this requirement placed on the Cohenim, helps us put two items noted in the life of Y’shua recorded in Luke’s Gospel. The first is His response to someone Y’shua met who was deeply moved by His teaching and seemed to want to follow the Messiah when invited, but who said, “First, let me bury my father.” Y’shua responds in what may seem a rather sharp manner, “Let the dead bury the dead, you come and follow me.” The Second is in the parable of the Good Samaritan.
In this story, related by Y’shua to a Torah teacher who sought to test the Rabbi, three men come upon the victim of a mugging along the main road from Yericho to Yerushalayim. The first is a Cohen. If the Cohen was on his way to Yerushalayim to do his duties in the Temple, then the Law given in our passage today would have backed up his actions. Instead, we seem to point at the Cohen and accuse him of being less than a good neighbour. Why? There is a very slight hint in the story. In Y’shua’s example, the Cohen is “going down the road”. In matter of fact, that indicates he was finished his duties, and headed home to Yericho; thus he is guilty as charged, for he would have had plenty of time to cleanse himself before returning to the Temple for his next round of duties.
These accounts serve to draw out one aspect of the “Cost of Special”. The Cohenim were called to a higher duty, and therefore a higher level of responsibility. The Cohenim were looked to, to set a higher standard of behaviour. Every aspect of the life of the Cohenim was under scrutiny – by the people, and by God Himself.
Not only would being directly involved with death bring contamination, but so would any form of mourning on the part of the Cohen indicate defilement before God. Shaving a bald spot on his head, trimming the edges of his beard, rending (tearing) his garment, or cutting gashes in his skin all would have indicated that his heart was elsewhere instead of on his duties.
Other forms of defilement came through unworthy marriage – being united to a harlot (loose woman), or a divorcee, or a mamzer, (daughter born out of wedlock, or through an earlier unrighteous union).
Finally, Elohim explains to Moshé, (and thus to us) that just as there are standards regarding the animal which is brought to the altar, there are exactly the same qualifications, and more, for the Cohen who will prepare and present the sacrifice on behalf of the penitent person. A Cohen must have no blemishes on his skin, nor rashes, nor dry or moist eruptions on his skin. He is not to be blind or deaf, no person who has no distinguishable bridge between nose and forehead would be eligible. He can have no broken limbs, and both arms and both legs must be of equal length (to each other, respectively) and a man with crushed or injured testicles could not offer a sacrifice. Even eyebrows which were too long (bushy??) disqualified a Cohen from active service.
At this point let me dance boldly out on a limb. I do not know why these features kept a Cohen from sacrificial office, but I have this thought, based on my experience in high-school. I once had a teacher who had a large growth, (let’s say it was a wart, for ease of imagery), on his nose. It was hard for most of us to get beyond it. Our attention in class was drawn to that growth. As a result, I can remember nothing from that class. He may have been a top-notch teacher, but I couldn’t swear to it because I was always distracted. In the same way, one who brings his sacrifice to the Tabernacle, or Temple, must have a pure and contrite heart, and be concentrating on what is going on. To be distracted by a feature of the Cohen would (possibly) have negated that offering, thus Adonai insists that no such ‘contamination’ be present in or on the Cohen.
In this story, related by Y’shua to a Torah teacher who sought to test the Rabbi, three men come upon the victim of a mugging along the main road from Yericho to Yerushalayim. The first is a Cohen. If the Cohen was on his way to Yerushalayim to do his duties in the Temple, then the Law given in our passage today would have backed up his actions. Instead, we seem to point at the Cohen and accuse him of being less than a good neighbour. Why? There is a very slight hint in the story. In Y’shua’s example, the Cohen is “going down the road”. In matter of fact, that indicates he was finished his duties, and headed home to Yericho; thus he is guilty as charged, for he would have had plenty of time to cleanse himself before returning to the Temple for his next round of duties.
These accounts serve to draw out one aspect of the “Cost of Special”. The Cohenim were called to a higher duty, and therefore a higher level of responsibility. The Cohenim were looked to, to set a higher standard of behaviour. Every aspect of the life of the Cohenim was under scrutiny – by the people, and by God Himself.
Not only would being directly involved with death bring contamination, but so would any form of mourning on the part of the Cohen indicate defilement before God. Shaving a bald spot on his head, trimming the edges of his beard, rending (tearing) his garment, or cutting gashes in his skin all would have indicated that his heart was elsewhere instead of on his duties.
Other forms of defilement came through unworthy marriage – being united to a harlot (loose woman), or a divorcee, or a mamzer, (daughter born out of wedlock, or through an earlier unrighteous union).
Finally, Elohim explains to Moshé, (and thus to us) that just as there are standards regarding the animal which is brought to the altar, there are exactly the same qualifications, and more, for the Cohen who will prepare and present the sacrifice on behalf of the penitent person. A Cohen must have no blemishes on his skin, nor rashes, nor dry or moist eruptions on his skin. He is not to be blind or deaf, no person who has no distinguishable bridge between nose and forehead would be eligible. He can have no broken limbs, and both arms and both legs must be of equal length (to each other, respectively) and a man with crushed or injured testicles could not offer a sacrifice. Even eyebrows which were too long (bushy??) disqualified a Cohen from active service.
At this point let me dance boldly out on a limb. I do not know why these features kept a Cohen from sacrificial office, but I have this thought, based on my experience in high-school. I once had a teacher who had a large growth, (let’s say it was a wart, for ease of imagery), on his nose. It was hard for most of us to get beyond it. Our attention in class was drawn to that growth. As a result, I can remember nothing from that class. He may have been a top-notch teacher, but I couldn’t swear to it because I was always distracted. In the same way, one who brings his sacrifice to the Tabernacle, or Temple, must have a pure and contrite heart, and be concentrating on what is going on. To be distracted by a feature of the Cohen would (possibly) have negated that offering, thus Adonai insists that no such ‘contamination’ be present in or on the Cohen.
Parsha Emor teaches us that the call to priesthood is special, it is a God-given privilege. The appearance, the physical condition of the Cohen is important. So too is his behaviour. The scrutiny of God on one side, the accusing eye of the people on the other should have kept the Cohen on a short leash, as it were. But there is a further reason for all this steering clear of contamination. It revolves around the fact that the call to priesthood was inherited. This meant that the lineage of Aharon’s family was of extreme importance. Anyone who is a parent can understand that ‘little eyes, and little minds’ are watching us all the time. We all know and agree that children learn more quickly from what they see and what they hear, than from what
they are told. The antics of the present Cohenim, at any given time is guaranteed to affect the future generations of priests.
I remember, when I shared my sense of being called into priesthood with friends and neighbours, being told that my behaviour would have to be circumspect from that point forward. No smoking, no drinking, no swearing, (and more) was the advice one of my Baptist neighbours offered. My own mother asked if she would have to change her life-style because of my decision. People think this way pretty automatically. In fairness to myself, I don’t think I was ever overly wild, but as a priest, I have made a conscientious effort to be a better person so as to honour God and my role as Cohen in God’s service. Of course, as many will tell you, I haven’t been perfect, but I am thankful for the forgiveness I have found and known in the person of Y’shua, my Messiah and Saviour.
they are told. The antics of the present Cohenim, at any given time is guaranteed to affect the future generations of priests.
I remember, when I shared my sense of being called into priesthood with friends and neighbours, being told that my behaviour would have to be circumspect from that point forward. No smoking, no drinking, no swearing, (and more) was the advice one of my Baptist neighbours offered. My own mother asked if she would have to change her life-style because of my decision. People think this way pretty automatically. In fairness to myself, I don’t think I was ever overly wild, but as a priest, I have made a conscientious effort to be a better person so as to honour God and my role as Cohen in God’s service. Of course, as many will tell you, I haven’t been perfect, but I am thankful for the forgiveness I have found and known in the person of Y’shua, my Messiah and Saviour.
As the commentator in my Stone Edition Art Scroll Chumash has written in his notes on this Parsha: “The primary privilege and responsibility of every Jew [I would say’ believer’, here] great or small, is to sanctify God’s Name through his [or her] behaviour, whether among Jews or Gentiles – by studying Torah and performing the Commandments [Obeying the Law] and by treating others kindly, considerately and honestly so that people say of him ‘Fortunate are the parents and teachers who raised such a person’…” To this, a further notation is made, quoting Rabbi Moshé Feinstein, who said: “Torah cautions adults to regulate their own behaviour, because the example they set will have an effect on the children who see them.”
Ahmain! I couldn’t agree more, and so let me close this week’s reflection by quoting the last verses of chapter 22 in our Parsha this week: “You shall observe My commandments and perform them; I am HaShem. You shall not desecrate My Holy Name, rather I should be sanctified among B'nei Yisra'el; I am HaShem Who sanctifies you; Who took you out of the land of Egypt to be a God unto you; I am HaShem.”
Shavua Tov!! - Have a Great Week!!
= = = ================================================= = = =
Shavua Tov!! - Have a Great Week!!
= = = ================================================= = = =
End Notes:
Many will dismiss at least some of these thoughts this week because they will say that it does not pertain to them because it was addressed to the Nation of Israel. Others will say it pertains only to priests and clergy, while clergy and priests will dismiss it because, they will point out, the church has grown from other ancestry – namely the catholic, orthodox and subsequent protestant traditions. This thinking is repugnant to me. I believe it is time for the Church to accept that our roots go far deeper, and are far more historic than going back to Rome. Our roots, especially for those who have accepted a call to serve God through priesthood, is grounded firmly in our Jewish ancestry and in the Cohenim of the Temple and Tabernacle. We may have evolved differently, and think we are, therefore, somehow different, but in that evolution, much of what God instructed His people to believe and do were negated through bias and ignorance.
Sha’ul tells us, that all believers in Messiah Y’shua are grafted into the Commonwealth of Israel, and just as Peter recorded for us in his first letter to the community of faith, “You yourselves, as living stones, are being built into a spiritual house [Tabernacle] to be Cohenim, set apart for God to offer spiritual sacrifices acceptable to Him through Y’shua the Messiah…” . By these claims from those who know, and who have been directed to record them for us by the Ruach haKodesh (The Holy Spirit), I believe it is in the Tabernacle and Temple service, in the directions given to the Cohenim, and in the example of Messiah Y’shua Himself – the Great High Priest (Cohen Gadol), (Hebrews 4:14) that we all, and especially we clergy, must find our rootedness. As the psalmist says, “Today, if you hear God’s voice, harden not your hearts as you did at M’rivah…in the desert.” (Ps.95:7b,8) … and as Yochanan recorded in the words of Revelation, “Those who have ears, let them hear what the Spirit is saying to the Messianic Communities (The Church).” (Rev 3:22)
= = = ======================================================== = = =
Many will dismiss at least some of these thoughts this week because they will say that it does not pertain to them because it was addressed to the Nation of Israel. Others will say it pertains only to priests and clergy, while clergy and priests will dismiss it because, they will point out, the church has grown from other ancestry – namely the catholic, orthodox and subsequent protestant traditions. This thinking is repugnant to me. I believe it is time for the Church to accept that our roots go far deeper, and are far more historic than going back to Rome. Our roots, especially for those who have accepted a call to serve God through priesthood, is grounded firmly in our Jewish ancestry and in the Cohenim of the Temple and Tabernacle. We may have evolved differently, and think we are, therefore, somehow different, but in that evolution, much of what God instructed His people to believe and do were negated through bias and ignorance.
Sha’ul tells us, that all believers in Messiah Y’shua are grafted into the Commonwealth of Israel, and just as Peter recorded for us in his first letter to the community of faith, “You yourselves, as living stones, are being built into a spiritual house [Tabernacle] to be Cohenim, set apart for God to offer spiritual sacrifices acceptable to Him through Y’shua the Messiah…” . By these claims from those who know, and who have been directed to record them for us by the Ruach haKodesh (The Holy Spirit), I believe it is in the Tabernacle and Temple service, in the directions given to the Cohenim, and in the example of Messiah Y’shua Himself – the Great High Priest (Cohen Gadol), (Hebrews 4:14) that we all, and especially we clergy, must find our rootedness. As the psalmist says, “Today, if you hear God’s voice, harden not your hearts as you did at M’rivah…in the desert.” (Ps.95:7b,8) … and as Yochanan recorded in the words of Revelation, “Those who have ears, let them hear what the Spirit is saying to the Messianic Communities (The Church).” (Rev 3:22)
= = = ======================================================== = = =
Acknowledgements – A General List
For these weekly reflections at least some of the following sources are used to resource basic and foundational information which augment’s the reflections offered.
Alexander, D and P, et al, The Eerdman’s Handbook to the Bible, William H. Eerdman Publishing, Grand Rapids, MI 1983
Ausubel, Nathan, The Book of Jewish Knowledge, Crown Publishers, New York, NY, 1970
Gehman, H. S. The New Westminster Dictionary of the Bible, Westminster Press, Philadelphia, PA 1970
Barker, Kenneth, General Editor, The New International Study Bible, (NIV) Zondervan Corporation, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1985
Scherman, R. Nosson; and Zlotowitz, R. Meir; Editors, Stone Edition Art Scroll Chumash, (SEASC) Mesorah Heritage Foundation / Mesorah Publications, Ltd., Brooklyn, New York, 2008
Stern, David, The Complete Jewish Bible, (CJB) Jewish New Testament Publications Inc, Clarkville, Maryland. 1998
Zodiates, Spiros, Exec Editor, The Hebrew Greek Key Word Bible (New American Version Bible) (NASV) AMG Publishers, Chattanooga, TN 1977
Wikipedia and other Internet sources for background information and some images. Other images are from personal files.
==== ==== ==== ==== ==== ===== ===== ===== ==== ==== ==== ==== ==== ====
For these weekly reflections at least some of the following sources are used to resource basic and foundational information which augment’s the reflections offered.
Alexander, D and P, et al, The Eerdman’s Handbook to the Bible, William H. Eerdman Publishing, Grand Rapids, MI 1983
Ausubel, Nathan, The Book of Jewish Knowledge, Crown Publishers, New York, NY, 1970
Gehman, H. S. The New Westminster Dictionary of the Bible, Westminster Press, Philadelphia, PA 1970
Barker, Kenneth, General Editor, The New International Study Bible, (NIV) Zondervan Corporation, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1985
Scherman, R. Nosson; and Zlotowitz, R. Meir; Editors, Stone Edition Art Scroll Chumash, (SEASC) Mesorah Heritage Foundation / Mesorah Publications, Ltd., Brooklyn, New York, 2008
Stern, David, The Complete Jewish Bible, (CJB) Jewish New Testament Publications Inc, Clarkville, Maryland. 1998
Zodiates, Spiros, Exec Editor, The Hebrew Greek Key Word Bible (New American Version Bible) (NASV) AMG Publishers, Chattanooga, TN 1977
Wikipedia and other Internet sources for background information and some images. Other images are from personal files.
==== ==== ==== ==== ==== ===== ===== ===== ==== ==== ==== ==== ==== ====
